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DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN.  1 91 8,  No.  35 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPJUF.S  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


A  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON 
THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION,  APPOINTED  BY  THE 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFHCE 

1918 


DEP.^RTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1918,  No.  35 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


A  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON 
THE  REORGANIZATION  OF  SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION.  APPOINTED  BY  THE 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRLNTING  OFFICE 

1918 


ii.JLft)lTIONAL  COPIES 

or  TSt,S  fr,TJ LIGATION  MAY  BE  PROCURED  FROM 

THE   gLi'ERBTTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT  PRUTTING  OFFICE 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

0  CE>JTS  PER  COPY 


*►••». 


CONTENTS 


rage. 

Preface 5 

Membership  of  the  reviewing  committee  of  the  commission 3 

^  I .  The  need  for  reorganization 7 

II.  The  goal  of  education  in  a  democracy 9 

III.  The  main  objectives  of  education . .  9 

IV.  The  role  of  secondary  education  in  achieving  these  objectives 11 

1.  Health 11 

2.  Command  of  fundamental  processes 11 

3.  Worthy  home-membership 12 

4.  Vocation 13 

5.  Civic  education 13 

6.  Worthy  use  of  leisure 15 

7.  Ethical  character 15 

V.  Interrelation  of  the  objectives  in  secondary  education 18 

VI.  Recognition  of  the  objectives  in  reorganizing  high-school  su.bjects IG 

VII.  Education  as  a  process  of  growth IG 

VIII.  Need  for  explicit  values 17 

IX.  Subordination  of  deferred  values 17 

"^  X.  Division  of  education  into  elementary  and  secondarj'' 17 

^  XI.  Division  of  secondary  education  into  junior  and  senior  periods 18 

"^XII.  Articulation  of  secondary  education  with  elementary  education 1;) 

XIII .  Articulation  of  higher  education  with  secondary  education 10 

XIV.  Recognition  of  the  objectives  in  planning  curriculums 20 

XV.  The  specializing  and  unifying  functions  of  secondary  education 21 

XVI.  The  comprehensive  high  school  as  the  standard  secondary  e^-hool 24 

XVII.  Recognition  of  the  objectives  in  organizing  the  school 27 

XVIII.  Secondary  education  essential  for  all  youth „ . .  29 

XIX.  Part-time  schooling  as  a  compulsory  mininmm  requirement 30 

XX.  Conclusion SI 

8 


isicet 


REPORTS  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON  THE  REORGANIZATION 
OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

The  following  reports  of  the  commission  have  been  issued  as  bulletins  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  and  may  be  procured  from  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  at  the 
prices  stated.  Remittance  should  be  made  in  coin  or  money  order.  Other 
reports  of  the  commission  are  in  preparation. 

1913,  No.  41.  The  Reorganization  of  Secondary   Education.     Contains  prelimi^ 
nary  statements  by  the  chnirraen  of  committees.    10  cents. 

1915,  No.  23.     The  Teaching  of  Conmumity  Civics,    10  cents. 

1916,  No.  2S.     The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education.     10  cents. 

1917,  No.    2.     Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Sciiools.    20  cents. 
1917,  No.  49.     I\Iusic  in  Secondary  Schools.    5  cents. 

1917,  No.  50.  Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools.     5  cents. 

1917,  No.  51.  Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education.     5  cents, 

1918,  No.  19.  Vocational  Guidance  in  Secondary  Schools.     5  cents. 
1918,  No.  35.  Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.    5  cents. 

4 


MJ 


PREFACE. 


TI18  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education 
presents  herewith  the  cardinal  principles  which,  in  tlie  judgment  of 
its  reviewing  committee,  should  guide  the  reorganization  and  devel- 
opment of  secondary  education  in  the  United  States. 

The  commission  w^as  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the  work  of  the  com- 
mittee on  the  articulation  of  high  school  and  college,  which  submit- 
ted its  report  to  the  National  Education  Association  in  1911.  That 
committee  set  forth  briefly  its  conception  of  the  field  and  function  of 
secondar}^  education  and  urged  the  modification  of  college  entrance 
requirements  in  order  that  the  secondar}^  school  might  adapt  its  work 
to  the  varying  needs  of  its  pupils  without  closing  to  them  the  possi- 
bility of  continued  education  in  higher  institutions.  It  took  the 
position  that  the  satisfactory  completion  of  any  w^ell-planned  high- 
school  curriculum  should  be  accepted  as  a  preparation  for  college. 
This  recommendation  accentuated  the  responsibility  of  the  secondary 
school  for  planning  its  Avork  so  that  young  people  may  meet  the 
needs  of  democracy. 

Through  16  of  its  committees  the  commission  is  issuing  reports 
dealing  wdth  the  organization  and  administration  of  secondary 
schools,  and  Avith  the  aims,  methods,  and  content  of  the  various 
studies.  To  assist  these  committees  through  constructive  criticism, 
a  reviewing  committee  was  organized  in  1913.  Besides  conducting 
continuous  correspondence,  that  committee  has  each  j^ear  held  one  oj* 
two  meetings  of  from  one  to  six  days'  duration,  at  which  reports  of 
the  various  committees  w^ere  discussed  from  many  points  of  view,  and 
as  a  result  some  of  the  reports  have  been  revised  and  revv-ritteii  sev- 
eral times.  In' addition  to  its  task  of  criticizing  reports,  it  seemed 
desirable  that  the  reviewing  committee  itself  should  outline  in  a  sin- 
gle brief  report  those  fundamental  principles  that  would  be  most 
helpful  in  directing  secondary  education.  In  its  desire  to  determine 
the  principles  that  are  most  significant  and  to  set  them  forth  ade- 
quately, the  rcAdewing  committee  has  been  three  years  in  formulating 
and  revising  the  report  wdiich  is  presented  in  this  bulletin. 

The  reports  already  issued  by  seven  committees  and  listed  on  the 
last  page  of  this  bulletin  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  fundamental  agree- 
ment with  the  principles  herein  set  forth. 

The  translation  of  these  cardinal  principles  into  d:\ily  practice  will 
of  necessity  call  for  continued  study  and  experiment  on  the  pax^;  of 
the  administrative  officers  and  teachers  in  secondar}^  schoools. 

Clarence  D.  Kingsley, 
Chairman  of  the  Commission, 

5 


THE  REVIEWING  COMMITTEE   OF  THE   COMMISSION  ON  THE 
REORGANIZATION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

(The  Reviewing  Committee  consists  of  26  members,  of  whom  16  are  chairmen  of  com- 
nittees  and  10  are  members  at  large.) 

Gluiirman  of  the  Commission  and  of  the  Reviewing  Committee: 

Clareiice  D.  Kingsley,  State  iiigli-scliool  supervisor,  Boston,  Mass. 
Memhers  at  large: 

Hon.  I:'.  I*.  Ciaxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Wasliing- 
ton,  D.  C. 

Tliomay  H.  Brigg:s,  associate  professor  of  education,  Teachers  College, 
Cohn^bia  University,  New  York  City. 

Alexander  Inglis,  assistant  professor  of  education,  in  charge  of  secondary 
education,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Henry  Neuniann,  Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York  City. 

William  Orr,  senior  educational  secretary,  international  Y.  M.  C.  A.  com- 
mittee, 104  East  Twenty-eighth  Street,  New  York  City. 

William  B.  Owen,  principal  Clilcago  Normal  College.  Chicago,  111". 

Edward  O.  Sisson,  president  University  of  Montana,  Missoula.  Mont. 

Joseph  S.  Stewart,  professor  of  secondary  education,  University  of  Georgia, 
Athens,  Ga. 

Milo  11.  Stuart,  principal  Technical  High  School,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

H.  L,  Terry,  State  high-school  supervisor,  Madison,  ^Vis. 

Chairmen  of  Committees: 

Organization  and  Administration  of  Secondary  Education — Ciiarles  Hughes 
Johnston,  professor  of  secondary  education.  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana, 
111.^ 

Agriculture — A.  Y.  Storm,  professor  of  agricultural  education,  University  of 
IMinnesota,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Art  Education — Henry  Turner  Bailey,  dean,  Cleveland  Scliool  of  Art, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Articulation  of  High  School  and  College — Clarence  D.  Kir.gsley,  State  high- 
school  inspector,  Boston,  Mass. 

Business  Education — Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  president,  Glrard  College,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Classical  Languages — Walter  Eugene  Foster,  Stuyvesant  High  School,  New 
York  City. 

English — James  Fleming  Hoslc,  Chicago  Normal  College,  Chicago,  111. 

Household  Arts — Mrs.  Henrietta  Calvin,  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Washington,  D.  ,C. 

Industrial  Arts — Wilson  PL  Henderson,  extension  division.  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (now  Major,  Sanitary  Corps,  War  Depart- 
ment. U.  S.  A.) 

Mathematics — William  Heard  Kilpatrick,  associate  professor  of  education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Modern  Languages— Edward  Manley,  Englewood  High  School,  Chicago,  111. 

INIusic — AVill  Earhart,  director  of  nuisic,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Physical  Education — James  H.  McCurdy,  director  of  normal  courses  of 
physical  education.  International  Y.  M.  C.  A.  College,  Springlield,  ISiass. 
(now  In  France,  in  charge  of  Y.  IM.  C.  A.  recreation  work). 

Sciences — Otis  W.  Caldwell,  director,  Lincoln  School,  and  professor  of  edu- 
cation, TeachvM-s  College,  Columbia  University.  New  York  City. 

Social  Studies— -Thomas  Jesse  Jones,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Vocational  Gnidance — Frank  I\T.  Lenvitt,  associate  superintendent  of  schools, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


g  »  Deceased,  Sept.  4,  1917. 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION, 


I.  THE  NEED  FOR  REORGANIZATION. 

Secondary  education  should  bo  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  so-  * 
ciety  to  be  served,  the  character  of  the  individuals  to  be  educated,  J 
and  the  knowledge  of  educational  theory  and  practice  available.  / 
These  factors  are  by  no  means  static.     Society  is  always  in  process  j 
of  development;  the  character  of  the  secondary-school  population  I 
undergoes  modification ;  and  the  sciences  on  which  educational  theory 
and  practice  depend  constantly  furnish  new  information.    Secondary 
education,  however,  like  any  other  established  agency  of  society,  is    , 
conservative  and  tends  to  resist  modification.     Failure  to  make  ad-  j 
justments  T^-hen  the  need  arises  leads  to  the  necessity  for  extensive 
reoro-anization  at  irrei^'ular  intervals.     The  evidence  is  stronc:  that 
such  a  comprehensive  reorganization  of  secondary  education  is  im- 
perative at  the  present  time. 

1.  Changes  in  society. — Within  the  past  few  decades  changes  have 
taken  place  in  American  life  profoundly  aiTecting  the  activities  of 
the  individual.  As  a  citizen,  he  must  to  a  greater  extent  and  in  a  more 
direct  way  cope  with  problems  of  communit}'  life,  State  and  National 
Governments,  and  international  relationships.  As  a  worker,  ho  must 
adjust  himself  to  a  more  complex  economic  order.  As  a  relatively 
independent  personalit}^,  he  has  more  leisure.  The  problems  arising 
from  these  three  dominant  phases  of  life  are  closely  interrelated  and 
call  for  a  degree  of  intelligence  and  efficiency  on  the  part  of  every 
citizen  that  can  not  be  secured  through  elementary  education  alone, 
or  even  through  secondary  education  unless  the  scope  of  that  edu- 
cation is  broadened. 

The  responsibility  of  the  secondary  school  is  still  further  increased  ^ 
because  many  social  agencies  other  than  the  school  atTord  less  stim-    \ 
ulus  for  education  than  heretofore.     In  many  vocations  there  have 
come  such  significant  changes  as  the  substitution  of  the  factory  sys- 
.tern  for  the  domestic  system  of  industry;  the  use  of  machiHory  in    j 
place  of  manual  labor;  the  high  specialization  of  processes  wfjfti  a    ^ 
corresponding  subdivision  of  labor;  and  the  hreakdown  of  the  ap- 
prentice system.  In  connection  with  home  and  family  life  have  fre- 
quently come  lessened  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  children ;  the 
withdrawal  of  the  father  and  sometimes  the  mother  from  home  oc- 
cupations to  the  factory  or  store ;  and  increased  urbanization,  res'.ilt- 

7 


8  CAKDIKAI.  PElKGIPLEr:^   QF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

ing  in  less  unified  family  life.  Similarly,  many  important  changes 
have  taken  place  in  community  life,  in  the  church,  in  the  State,  and 
in  other  institutions.  These  changes  in  American  life  call  for  ex- 
tensive modifications  in  secondary  education. 

2.  Changes  in  the  secondary-school  population. — In  the  past  25 
years  there  have  been  marked  changes  in  the  secondar}- -school  pop- 
ulation of  the  United  States.  The  number  of  pupils  has  increased, 
according  to  Federal  returns,  from  one  for  everj^  210  of  the  total 
population  in  1889-00,  to  one  for  every  121  in  1899-1900.  to  one  for 
every  89  in  1909-10,  and  to  one  for  every  73  of  the  estimated  total 
population  in  1914-15.  The'cliaracter  of  the  secondary-school  pop- 
ulation has  been  modified  by  the  entrance  of  large  numbers  of  pupils 
of  -vwid^lj'  varying  capacities,  aptitudes,  social  heredity,  and  destinies 
in  life.  Further,  the  broadening  of  the  scope  of  secondary  education 
has  brought  to  the  school  many  pupils  who  do  not  complete  the  full 
course  but  leave  at  various  stages  of  advancement.  The  needs  of  these 
pupils  can  not  be  neglected,  nor  can  we  expect  in  the  near  future 
that  all  pupils  will  be. able  to  complete  the  secondary  school  as  full- 
time  students. 

At  present  only  about  one-third  of  the  pupils  who  enter  the  first 
year  of  the  elementary  school  reach  the  four-year  high  school,  and 
only  about  one  in  nine  is  graduated.  Of  those  who  enter  the  seventh 
school  year,  only  one-half  to  two- thirds  reach  the  first  year  of  the 
four-year  high  school.  Of  those  who  enter  the  four-year  high  school 
about  one-third  leave  before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year,  about 
one-half  are  gone  before  the  beginning  of  the  third  year,  and  fewer 
than  one-third  are  graduated.  These  facts  can  no  longer  be  safely 
ignored. 

3.  Changes  in  educational  theory. — The  sciences  on  which  educa- 
tional theory  depends  have  within  recent  years  made  significant 
contributions.  In  particular,  educational  psychology  emphasizes  the 
following  factors: 

'{a)  Individucil  di-ffcrenccs  in  capacities  ami  aptitudes  among  sec- 
ondaTy -school  pupils.  Already  recognized  to  some  extent,  this  factor 
merits  fuller  attention. 

(&)  The  reexaminatiGn  and  reinterpret ation  of  subject  values  and 
the  teaching  methods  loitk  reference  to  *'  general  discipline.'''— Whih 
the  fin^l  verdict  of  modern  psychology  has  not  as  yet  been  rendered, 
it  is  clear  that  former  conceptions  of  "  general  values  "  must  be  thor- 
oughly revised. 

(c)  Importance  of  applying  hnoiclcdge.—Swh]Qol  values  and 
teaching  methods  must  be  tested  in  terms  of  the  laws  of  learning  and 
the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  activities  of  life,  rather  than 
primarily  in  terms  of  thedemands  of  any  subject  as  a  logically  or- 
ganized science. 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF    SECONDARY   EDUCATION.  9 

(d)  Continuityjn^the  development  of  children. — It  has  long  been 
held  that  ps^'chological  changes  at  certain  stages  are  so  pronounced 
as  to  overshadow  the  continuity  of   development.     On  this  basis 
secondary  education  has  been  sharply  separated  from  elementary  edu- 
cation.   Modern  psychology,  however,  goes  to  show  that  the  develop- ' 
ment  of  the  individual  is  in  most  respects  a  continuous  process  and  \ 
that,  therefore,  any  sudden  or  abrupt  break  between_the  elementary  \ 
and  the  secondary  school  or  between  ariy  two  successive  stages  of  ; 
education  is  undesirable. 

The  foregoing  changes  in  society,  in  the  character  of  the  secondary- 
school  population,  and  in  educational  theory,  together  vvith  many  ' 
other  considerations,  call  for  extensive  modifications  of  secondary 
education.  Such  modifications  have  already  begun  in  part.  The 
present  need  is  for  the  formulation  of  a  comprehensive  program  of 
reorganization,  and  its  adoption,  with  suitable  adjustments,  in  all 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  Nation.  Hence  it  is  appropriate  for  a 
representative  body  like  the  National  Education  Association  to  out- 
line such  a  program.  This  is  the  task  entrusted  by  that  association 
to  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

II.  THE  GOAL  OF  EDUCATION  IN  A  DEMOCRACY. 

Education  in  the  United  States  should  be  guided  b}^  a  clear  con-  . 
ception  of  the  meaning  of  democracy.    It  is  the  ideal  of  democracy  y  ' 
that  the  individual  and  societv_niay_  fincT  fu]fillment_each  in  the    ] 
other.  I  Democracy  sanciions  neither  the  exploitation  of  the  inclivid-^l 
ual  by  societ}^,  nor  the  disregard  of  the  interests  of  society  by  the,/* 
individual.    More  explicitly — 

The  purpose  of  democracy  is  so  to  org-aiiize  society  that  each  member /) 
may  develop  his  personality  primp.rily  through  activities  designed  for  the)  V 
well-being  of_his  fellow  m.embers  and  of  society  as  a  whole.  '  // 

This  kleal  demands  that  human  activities  be  placed  upon  a  high 
level  oi  efficiency ;  that  to  this  efficiency  be  added  an  appreciation  of 
the  signtficatlce  of  these  activities  and  loyalty  to  the  best  ideals  in- 
volved ;  and  that  the  individual  choose  that  vocation  and  those  forms 
of  social  service  in  which  his  personality  may  develop  and  become 
most  effective.  For  the  achievement  of  these  ends  democracy  must  / 
place  chief  reliance  upon  education. 

Consequently,  education  in  a  democracy,  both  within  and  without  the      \ 
school,  should  develop  in  each  individual  the  knowledge,  intei-ests,  ideals,  ^,  / 
habits,  and  powers  whereby  he  will  find  his  place  and  use  that  place  to 
shape  both  himself  and  society  toward  ever  nobler  ends. 

III.  THE  MAIN  OBJECTIVES  OF  EDUCATION. 

In  order  to  determine  the  main  objectives  that  should  guide  educa- 
tion in  a  democracy  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the  activities  of  the 
individual.    Normally  he  is  a  member  of  a  family,  of  a  vocational 
83453°— 18 2  — "  ,     - 


10  CARDINAL  PEINCIPLES   OP   SECOIs^DAEY   EDUCATION. 

group,  and  of  A'arioiis  civic  groups,  and  by  virtue  of  these  relation- 
ships he  is  called  upon  to  engage  in  activities  that  enrich  the  family 
life,  to  render  important  vocational  services  to  his  fellows,  and  to 
jj  promote  the  common  v^'elf are.  |^  It  Jollovrs,  therefore,  that  worthy 
[/  home-membership,  vocation,  andcitizenship,  demand  attention  as 
ij    three  of  the  leading  cbjectives.\  ^^-^-i.-— 

Aside  from  the  immedialemlscharge  of  these  specific  duties,  every 
individual  should  have  a  m.argin  of  time  for  the  cultivation  of  per- 
sonal and  social  interests.  This  leisure,  if  worthily  used,  wiTTre- 
create  his  powers  and  enlarge  and  enrich  life,  thereby  making  him 
better  able  to  meet  his  responsibilities.  The  unworthy  use  of  leisure 
impairs  health,  disrupts  home  life,  lessens  vocational  efficiency,  and 
destroj^'s  civic-mindedness.  The  tendenc}^  in  industrial  life,  aided  by 
legislation,  is  to  decrease  the  working  hours  of  large  groups  of  peo- 
ple. While  shortened  hours  tend  to  lessen  the  harmful  reactions  that 
arise  from  prolonged  strain,  the}^  increase,  if  possible,  the  importance 
of  preparation  for  leisure.  In  view  of  these  considerations,  educa- 
tion for  the  worthy  use  of  leisure  is  of  increasing  importance  as  an 
objecti^'e. 

To  discharge  the  duties  of  life  and  to  benefit  from  leisure,  one 
must  have  good  health.  The  health  of  the  individual  is  essential  also 
to  the  vitalit}^  of  the  race  and  to  the  defense  of  the  Nation.  Health 
education  is,  therefore,  fundamental. 

There  are  various  processes,  such  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetical 
computations,  and  oral  and  written  expression,  that  are  needed  as 
tools  in  the  affairs  of  life.  Consequently,  command  of  these  funda- 
mental processes,  vrhile  not  an  end  in  itself,  is  nevertheless  an  indis- 
pensable objective. 

And,  finally,  the  realization  of  the  objectives  already  named  is  de- 
pendent upon  ethical  character,  that  is,  upon  cond^ict  founded  upon 
right  principles,  clearly  perceived  Tind  loyally  adhered  to.  Good 
citizenship,  vocational  excellence,  and  the  v^^orthy  use  of  leisure  go 
hand  in  hand  with  ethical  character;  they  are  at  once  the  fruits  of 
sterling  character  and  the  channels  through  which  such  character  is 
developed  and  made  manifest.  On  the  one  hand,  character  is  mean- 
ingless apart  from  the  will  to  discharge  the  duties  of  life,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  no  guarantee  that  these  duties  will  be  rightly 
discharged  unless  principles  are  substituted  for  impulses,  hovs^ever 
well-intentioned  such  impulses  may  be.  Consequently  ethical  char- 
acter is  at  once  involved  in  all  the  other  objectives  and  at  the  same 
time  requires  specific  consideration  in  any  program  of  national  edu- 
cation. :;  r'        ^-"^ 

This  commission,  therefore,  regards  the  followiug  as  tfie  main  ob- 
jectives of  education :  1.  Health.     2.  Command  of  fundamental  proc- 


V 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  -EDUCATION.  11 

esses.     3.  Worthy  home-menlbership.     4.  Vocation.     5.  Citizenship.  -  ; 
6.  Worthy  tise  of  leisure.     7.  Ethical  character.  '  f 

The  naming  of  the  above  objectives  is  not  intended  to  imply  TTiat 
the  process  of  education  can  be  divided  into  separated  fields.     This  \ 
can  not  be,  since  the  pupil  is  indivisible.     Nor  is  the  analysis  all-    I 
inclusive.     Nevertheless,  we  believe  that  distinguishing  and  naming  /  ^ 
these  objectives  will  aid  in  directing  efforts;  and  we  hold  that  thej 
should  constitute  the  principal  aims  in  education. 

IV.    THE  ROLE   OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  ACHIEVING  THESE 

OBJECTIVES. 

The  objectives  outlined  above  apply  to  education  as  a  whole — ele- 
mentary, secondary,  and  higher.     It  is  the  purpose  of  this  section  to , 
consider  specifically  the  role  of  secondar}^  education  in  achieving  each  , 
of  these  objectives. 

For  reasons  stated  in  Section  X,  this  commission  favors  such  reor- 
ganization that  secondary  education  may  be  defined  as  applying  to 
all  pupils  of  approximately  12  to  18  years  of  age. 
C^.  Health, — Health  needs  can  not  be  neglected  during  the  period 
of  secondary  education  without  serious  danger  to  the  individual  and 
the  race.  The  secondary  school  should  therefore  provide  health  in- 
struction, inculcate  health  habits,  organize  an  effective  program  of 
physical  activities,  regard  health  needs  in  planning  work  and  play, 
and  cooperate  with  home  and  community  in  safe-guarding  and  pro- 
moting health  interests. 

To  carry  out  such  a  program  it  is  necessary  to  arouse  the  public 
to  recognize  that  the  health  needs  of  young  people  are  of  vital  im- 
portance to  society,  to  secure  teachers  competent  to  ascertain  and 
meet  the  needs  of  individual  pupils  and  able  to  inculcate  in  the  entire 
student  body  a  love  for  clean  sport,  to  furnish  adequate  equipment 
for  physical  activities,  and  to  make  the  school  building,  its  rooms  and 
surroundings,  conform  to  the  best  standards  of  hygiene  and  sani- 
tation.^ 

J  2.  Gommand  of  fundamental  processes. — Much  of  the  energy  of  the 
elementar}'^  school  is  properly  devoted  to  teaching  certain  fundamen- 
tal processes,  such  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetical  computations, 
and  the  elements  of  oral  and  written  expression.  The  facility  that  a 
child  of  12  or  11  may  acquire  in  the  use  of  these  tools  is  not  suflicient 
for  the  needs  of  modern  life.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  mother 
tongue.  Proficiency  in  many  of  these  processes  may  be  increased 
more  effectively  by  their  application  to  new  material  than  by  the 
formal   reviews   commonly   employed    in    grades    seven    and    eifilit. 

1  For  the  outlines  of  a  health  program,  see  a  report  of  this  commission  issuer]  by  the 
Bureau  of  Education  as  Bulletin,  1017,  No.  50,  "Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools." 


12  CAEDINAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

Throughout  tho  secondary  school,  instruction  and  practice  must  go 
hand  in  hand,  but  as  indicated  in  the  report  of  the  committee  on 
English,^  only  so  much  theory  should  be  taught  at  any  one  time  as 
will  show  results  in  practice. 

3.  Worthy  home-iiwinhershiiJ. — ^Worthy  home-membership  as  an 
objective  calls  for  the  development  of  those  qualities  that  make  the  in- 
dividual a  worthy  member  of  a  family,  both  contributing  to  and  de- 
riving benefit  from  that  membership. 

This  objective  applies  to  both  boys  and  girls.  The  social  studies 
should  deal  with  the  home  as  a  fundamental  social  institution  and 
clarify  its  relation  to  the  wider  interests  outside.  Literature  should 
interpret  and  idealize  the  human  elements  that  go  to  make  the  home. 
Music  and  art  should  result  in  more  beautiful  homes  and  in  greater 
joy  therein.  The  coeducational  school  with  a  faculty  of  men  and 
women  should,  in  its  organization  and  its  activities,  exemplify  whole- 
some relations  between  boys  and  girls  and  men  and  women. 

Home  membership  as  an  objective  shouM  not  be  thought  of  solely 
with  reference  to  future  duties.  These  are  the  better  guaranteed  if 
the  school  helps  the  pupils  to  take  the  right  attitude  toward  present 
home  responsibilities  and  interprets  to  them  the  contribution  of  the 
home  to  their  development. 

In  the  education  of  every  high-school  girl,  the  household  arts 
should  have  a  prominent  place  because  of  their  importance  to  the 
girl  herself  and  to  others  whose  welfare  will  be  directly  in  her  keep- 
ing. The  attention  now  devoted  to  this  phase  of  education  is  in- 
adequate, and  especially  so  for  girls  preparing  for  occupations  not 
related  to  the  household  arts  and  for  girls  planning  for  higher  insti- 
tutions. The  majority  of  girls  who  enter  wage-earning  occupations 
directly  from  the  high  school  remain  in  them  for  only  a  few  years, 
after  which  home  making  becomes  their  lifelong  occupation.  For 
them  the  high-school  period  oifers  the  only  assured  opportunity  to 
prepare  for  that  lifelong  occupation,  and  it  is  during  this  ])eriod 
that  they  are  most  likely  to  form  their  ideals  of  life's  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities.   For  girls  planning  to  enter  higher  institutions — 

(Rir  traditional  ideals  of  preparation  for  higher  institutions  arc  particularly 
incongruous  with  the  actual  needs  and  future  responsibilities  of  girls.  It 
would  seem  that  such  high-school  work  as  is  carefully  designed  to  develop 
capacity  for,  and  interest  in,  the  proper  management  and  conduct  of  a  home 
should  be  regarded  as  of  importance  at  least  equal  to  that  of  any  other  work. 
We  do  not  understand  how  society  can  properly  continue  to  sanction  for  girls 
high-school  curriculums  that  disregard  this  fundamental  need,  even  though 
sucli  curriculums  are  planned  in  response  to  the  demands  made  by  some  of  the 
colleges  for  women." 

^  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  2,  "  Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary 
Schools." 

a  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Articulation  of  High  School  and  College,  1911. 


CARDINAL   PKINCIPLES   OF    SECONDARY   EDUCATION.  13 

In  the  education  of  boys,  some  opportunity  should  be  found  to 
give  them  a  basis  for  the  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the 
;\^ell-appointed  home  and  of  the  labor  and  skill  required  to  maintain 
such  a  home,  to  the  end  that  they  may  cooperate  more  effectively. 
For  instance,  thoy  should  understand  the  essentials  of  food  values, 
of  sanitation,  and  of  household  budgets. 

4.  Vocation. — Vocational  education  should  equip  the  individual  to 
secure  a  livelihood  for  himself  and  those  dependent  on  him,  to  serve 
society  v\ell  through  his  location,  to  maintain  the  right  relatTonships 
toward  his  fellow  v;orkersjind_socicjty,  and,  ai:  far  as  possible,  to 
find  in  that  vocation  his  own  best  development. 

This  ideal  demands  that  the  pupil  explore  his  own  capacities  and 
aptitudes,  and  make  a  survey  of  the  v/orld's  work,  to  the  end  that  ho 
may  select  his  vocation  wisely.  Hence,  an  ciTective  program  of  vo- 
cational guidance  in  the  secondary  school  is  essential.^ 

•  Vocational  education  should  ai.ni  to  develop  an  appreciation  of 
the  significance  of  the  vocation  to  the  community,  and  a  clear  con- 
ception of  right  relations  between  the  members  of  the  chosen  vocation, 
between  different  vocational  groups,  between  employer  and  employee, 
and  between  producer  and  coixsumer.  These  aspects  of  vocational 
education,  heretofore  neglected,  demand  emphatic  attention. 

The  extent  to  which  the  secondary  school  should  offer  training  for 
a  specific  vocation  depends  upon  the  vocation,  the  facilities  that  the 
school  can  acquire,  and  the  opportunity  that  the  pupil  may  have  to 
obtain  such  training  later.  To  obtain  satisfactory  results  those  pro- 
ficient in  that  vocation  should  be  employed  as  instructors  and  the 
actual  conditions  of  the  vocation  should  be  utilized  either  within  t]">e 
high  school  or  in  cooperation  v/ith  the  home,  farm,  shop,  or  office. 
Much  of  the  pupil's  time  will  be  required  to  prodtsce  such  efficiency. 

5.  Civi€  education  should  develop  in  the  individual  those  qualities 
wliereb}'  he  will  act  well  his  part  as  a  member  of  neighborhood,  town  v 
or  city,  State,  and  Nation,  and  give  him  a  basis  for  understanding  in- 
ternational problems. 

For  such  citizenship  the  following  are  essential :  Ajnany -sided  x 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  communities  to  which  one  belongs;  J 
loyalty  to  ideals  of  civic  righteousness ;  practical  knowledge  of  social 
agencies  and  institutions;  good  judgment  as  to  means  and  methods 
that  will  promote  one  social  end  without  defeating  others;  and  as 
putting  all  these  into  effect,  habits  of  cordial  cooperation  in  social 
undertakings. 

The  school  should  develop  the  concept  that  the  civic  duties  of  men 
and  women,  while  in  part  identical,  are  also  in  part  supplementary. 

*  For  a  comprehensive  program  of  vocational  guidance  see  a  report  of  this  commission 
issued  as  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1918,  No.  1^^  "  Vocational  Guidance*  in  Seconda'-j 
Schools," 


14  CAKDIISrAL  PEINCIPIES  OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATIOIT. 

Differentiation  in  civic  activities  is  to  be  encouraged,  but  not  to  tlie 
extent  of  loss  of  interest  in  the  common  problems  with  which  all 
should  cope. 

Among  the  means  for  developing  attitudes  and  habits  important 
in  a  democracy  are  the  assignment  of  projects  and  problems  to 
groups  of  pupils  for  cooperative  solution  and  the  socialized  recita- 
tion wdiereb}^  the  class  as  a  whole  develops  a  sense  of  collective 
responsibility.  Both  of  these  devices  give  training  in  collective  think- 
ing. Moreover,  the  democratic  organization  and  administration  of 
the  school  itself,  as  vrell  as  the  cooperative  relations  of  pupil  and 
teacher,  pupil  and  pupil,  and  teacher  and  teacher,  are  indispensable. 

While  all  subjects  should  contribute  to  good  citizenshij),  the  social  ' 
studies — geography,  history,  civics,  and  economics — should  have  this 
as  their  dominant  aim.  Too  frequently,  however,  does  mere  in- 
formation, conventional  in  value  and  remote  in  its  bearing,  make 
up  the  content  of  the  social  studies.  History  should  so  treat  the 
growth  of  institutions  that  their  present  value  may  be  appreciated. 
Geography  should  show^  the  interdependence  of  men  while  it  shows 
their  common  dependence  on  nature.  Civics  should  concern  itself 
less  with  constitutional  questions  and  remote  governmental  functions, 
and  should  direct  attention  to  social  agencies  close  at  hand  and  to 
the  informal  activities  of  daily  Tife  that  regard  and  seek  the  common 
good.  Such  agencies  as  child-welfare  organizations  and  consumers' 
leagues  afford  specific  opportunities  for  the  expression  of  civic  quali- 
ties by  the  older  pupils'. 

The  work  in  English__should  kindle  social  ideals  and  give  insight 

into  social  conditions  and  into  personal  character  as  related  to  these 

conditions.     Hence  the  emphasis  by  the  committee  on  English  on 

1    the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  social  activities,  social  movements, 

and  social  needs  on  the  part  of  the  teacht?r  of  English. 

The  comprehension  of  the  ideals  of  American  democracy/  and 
i  loyalty  to  them  should  be  a  prominent  aim  of  civic  education.  The 
pupil  should  feel  that  he  will  be  responsible,  in  cooperation  with 
others,  for  keeping  the  Nation  true  to  the  best  inherited  conceptions 
of  democrac}^,  and  he  should  also  realize  that  democracy  itself  is  an 
ideal  to  be  wrought  out  by  his  own  and  succeeding  generations. 

Civic  education  should  consider  other  nations  also.  As  a  peo- 
ple we  should  try  to  understand  their  aspirations  and  ideals  that  we 
may  deal  more  sympathetically  and  intelligently  with  the  immi- 
grant coming  to  our  shores,  and  have  a  basis  for  a  Aviser  and  more 
sympathetic  approach  to  international  problems.  Our  pupils  should 
learn  that  each  nation,  at  leMst  potentially,  has  something  of  worth 
to  contribute  to  civilization  and  that  humanity  would  be  incom- 
plete Avithout  that  contribution.  Tliis  means  a  study  of  specific 
nations,  their  achievements  and  possibilities,  not  ignoring  their  limi- 
tations.    Such  a  study  of  dissimilar  contributions  in  the  light  of  the 


CAKDIKAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  15 

ideal  of  human  brotherhood  should  help  to  establish  a  genuine  in- 
ternationalism, free  from  sentimentality,  founded  on  fact,  and  ac- 
tually operative  in  the  affairs  of  nations/ 

6.  Worthy  use  of  leisure. — Education  should  equip  the  individual 
to  secure  from  his'leisure  the  re-creation  of  body,  mind,  and  spirit, 
and  the  enrichment  and  enlarg'ement  of  his  per.sonality. 

This  objective  calls  for  the  ability  to  utilize  the  common  means  of 
enjoyment,  such  as  music,  art,  literature,  drama,  and  social  inter- 
course, together  with  the  fostering  in  each  individual  of  one  or  more 
special  avocational  interests. 

Heretofore  the  high  school  has  given  little  conscious  attention  to 
this  objective.  It  has  so  exclusively  sought  intellectual  discipline 
that  it  has  seldom  treated  literature,  art,  and  music  so  as  to  evoke 
right  emotional  response  and  produce  positive  enjoyment.  Its  pre- 
sentation of  science  should  aim,  in  part,  to  arouse  a  genuine  appre- 
ciation of  nature. 

The  school  has  failed  also  to  organize  and  direct  the  social  activi-  ^ 
ties  of  young  people  as  it  should.    One  of  the  surest  ways  in  which 
to  prepare  pupils  worthily  to  utilize  leisure  in  adult  life  is  by  guiding  ^ 
and  directing  their  use  of  leisure  in  j^outh.    The  school  should,  there-    "^ 
fore,  see  that  adequate  recreation  is  provided  both  witliiiiJhe  school 
and  by  other  proper  agencies  in  the  community.    The  school,  how- 
ever, has  a  unique  opportunity  in  this  field  because  it  includes  in  its  :^ 
membership  representatives  from  all  classes  of  society  and  conse- 
quently is  able  through  social  relationships  to  establish  bonds  of 
friendship  and  common  understanding  that  can  not  be  furnished  by 
other  agencies.     Moreover,  the  school  can  so  organize  recreational  '^ 
activities  that  they  will  contribute  simultaneously  to  other  ends  of 
education,  as  in  the  case  of^the  school  pageant  or  festival. 

7.  Ethical  character. — In  a  democratic  society  ethical  character  be- 
comes paramount  among  the  objectifies  of  the  secondary  school. 
Among  the  means  for  developing  ethical  character  may  be  men- 
tioned the  wise  selection  of  content  and  methods  of  instruction  in  all 
subjects  of  study*  the  social  contacts  of  pupils  with  one  another  and 
w-ith  their  teachers,  the  opportunities  afforded  by  the  organization 
and  administration  of  the  school  for  the  development  on  the  part  of 
pupils  of  the  sense  of  personal  responsibility  and  initiative,  and, 
above  all,  the  spirit  of  service  and  the  principles  of  true  democracy  O 
which  should  permeate  the  entire  school — princii)al,  teachers,  and 
pupils. 

Specific  consideration  is  given  to  the  moral  values  to  be  obtained 
from  the  organization  of  the  school  and  the  subjects  of  study  in  the 
report  of  this  commission   entitled   "  Moral   Values  in   Secondary 

1  For  a  further  discussion  of  civic  education,  see  the  rcporvs  of  this  commission  on  "  Tho 
Teaching  of  Community  Civics "  and  "  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education,"  Issued 
as  Bureau  of  Education  BulJ^^Uo^,  1915,  Xo.  23,  and  191G,  Nk   28,  respectively. 


16  CARDINAL  PEINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

Education."^  That  report  considers  also  the  coiKlitions  under  which 
it  may  be  advisable  to  supplement  the  other  activities  <^f  the  school 
b}^  offering  a  distinct  course  in  moral  instruction. 

V.  INTERRELATION  OF  THE  OBJECTIVES  IN  SECONDARY  EDUCA- 

TION. 

This  commission  holds  that  education  is  essentialh'  a  unitary  and 
continuous  process,  and  that  each  of  the  objectives  defined  above 
must  be  recognized  throughout  the  entire  extent  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. Health  needs  are  evidently  imporltint  at  all  stages;  the  vo- 
cational purpose  and  content  is  coming  properl}^  to  be  recognized 
as  a  necessary  and  valuable  ingredient  even  in  the  early  stages  and 
even  when  siDecific  pre^Daration  is  postponed;  citizenship  and  the 
worthy  use  of  leisure,  obviously  important  in  the  earlier  stages,  in- 
volve certain  phases  of  education  that  require  maturit}^  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil  and  hence  are  indispensable  also  in  the  later  stages  of 
secondary  education. 

Furthermore,  it  is  only  as  the  pupilsees  his  vocation  in  relation 
to  his  citizenship  and  his  citizenship  in  the  light  of  his  vocation 
that  he  will  be  prepared  for  effective  membership  in  an  industrial 
democracy.  Consequently,  this  commission  enters  its  protest  against 
any  and  all  plans,  however  well  intended,  which  are  in  danger  of 
divorcing  vocation  and  social-civic  education.  It  stands  squarely  for 
the  infusion  of  vocation  with  the  spirit  of  service  and  for  the 
vitalization  of  culture  by  genuine  contact  with  the  world's  work. 

VI.  RECOGNITION  OF  THE  OBJECTIVES  IN  REORGANIZING  HIGH- 

SCHOOL  SUBJECTS. 

Each  subject  now  taught  in  high  sclitols  is  in  need  of  extensive 
reorganization  in  order  that  it  may  contribute  more  effectively  to  the 
objectives  outlined  herein,  and  the  place  of  that  subject  in  secondary 
education  should  depend  upon  the  value  of  such  contribution.  In 
Section  IV  of  this  report  various  references  have  been  made  to 
needed  changes.  For  fuller  treatment  the  reader  is  referred  to  re- 
^3orts  of  this  commission  dealing  with  the  several  subjects.  These 
reports  indicate  important  steps  in  such  modifications.  In  each 
report  the  comm.ission  attempts  to  analyze  the  aims  in  terms  of  the 
objectives;  to  indicate  the  adaptation  of  methods  of  ])resentation  to 
the  aims  accepted;  and  to  suggest  a  selection  of  content  on  the  basis 
of  aims  and  methods. 

VII.  EDUCATION  AS  A  PROCESS  OF  GROWTH. 

Education  must  be  conceived  as  a  process  of  growth.  Only  when 
so  conceived  and  so  conducted  can  it  become  a  preparation  for  life. 

1  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  51. 


CAKDINAL  PEINCIPLES   OF    SECONDARY   £DUCATIO:Nr.  17 

In  SO  far  as  this  principle  lias  been  ignored,  formalism  and  ifcterility 
have  resulted. 

For  example,  civic  education  too  oileu  has  begun  with  topics  re- 
mote from  the  pupil's  experience  and  interest.  Keacting  against  this 
formalism,  some  would  have  pupils  study  only  those  activities  in 
which  they  can  engage  ^Yhilc  young.  This  extreme,  however,  is 
neither  necessary  nor  desirabU\  Pupils  should  be  led  to  respond  to 
present  duties  and,  at  the  same  time,  their  interest  should  be  aroused 
in  problems  of  adult  life.  With  this  interest  as  a  basis,  they  should 
be  helped  to  acquire  the  habits,  insight,  and  ideals  that  will  enable 
them  to  meet  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  later  life.  Similarly 
in  home-making  education,  to  neglect  present  duties  and  responsi- 
bilities toward  the  family  of  which  the  pupil  is  now  a  meinber,  is  to 
court  moral  insincerity  and  jeopardize  future  right  conduct.  -  With 
present  duties  as  a  point  of  departure',liome-inlilang  education  sliould 
arouse'an  interest  in  future  home-making  activities  and  with  that  in- 
terest as  a  basis  give  the  training  necessary. 

VIII.  NEED  FOR  EXPLICIT  VALUES. 

The  number  of  years  that  pupils  continue  in  school  beyond  the 
compulsory  school  age  depends  in  large  measure  upon  the  degree  to 
which  the}^  and  their  parents  realize  that  school  work  is  worth  while 
for  them  and  thi\t  they  are  succeeding  in  it.  Prc^bably  in  most  com- 
munities doubt  regarding  the  value  of  the  work  offered  causes  more 
pupils  to  leave  school  than  economic  necessity.  Consequently,  it  is 
important  that  the  work  of  each  pupil  sliould  be  so  presented  as  to 
convince  him  and  his  parents  of  its  real  value. 

IX.  SUBORDINATION^  OF  DEFERRED  VALUES. 

Many  subjects  are  now  so  organized  as  to  be  of  little  value  unless 
the  i:)upil  studies  them  for  several  years.  Since  a  large  proportion  of 
pupils  leave  school  in  each  of  the  successive  years,  each  subject 
should  be  so  organized  tliat  the  first  jqhv  of  work  will  be  of  definite 
value  to  those  who  go  no  further;  and  tliis  principle  should  be  :ip-. 
l^lied  to  the  work  of  each  year.  Cour^-es  planned  in  accordance  with 
this  principle  will  deal  with  the  simpler  aspects,  or  those  of  more 
direct  application,  in  the  earlier  years  and  wall  defer  the  refinements 
for  later  years  when  these  can  be  better  appreciated.  The  ccnirse  as  a 
wdiole  w^iil  then  be  better  adapted  to  the  needs  both  of  those  who 
continue  and  of  those  who  drop  out  of  school. 

X.  DIVISION  OF  EDUCATION  INTO  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY. 

Individual  differences  in  pupils  and  the  varied  needs  of  society 
alike  demand  that  education  be  so  varied  as  to  touch  the  leading 
aspects  of  occupational,  civic,  and  leisure.. life.    To  this  end  curric- 


18  CARDINAL  PEINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION". 

iilums  ^»  must  be  organized  at  appropriate  stages  and  the  work  of 
pupils  progressively  differentiated. 

To  accomplish  this  differentiation  most  wisely  the  pupil  should 
be  assisted  ordinarily  at  about  12  or  13  years  of  age  to  begin  a 
preliminary  survey  of  the  activities  of  adult  life  and  of  his  own 
aptitudes  in  connection  therewith,  so  that  he  may  choose,  at  least 
tentatively,  some  field  of  human  endeavor  for  special  consideration. 
Following  the  period  of  preliminary  survey  and  provisional  choice, 
he  should  acquire  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  field  chosen,  in- 
cluding therewith  an  appreciation  of  its  social  significance.  Those 
whose  schooling  ends  here  should  attain  some  mastery  of  the  technique 
involved.  The  field  chosen  will  be  for  some  as  sharply  defined  as  a 
specific  trade;  for  others,  it  will  be  but  the  preliminary  choice  of  a 
wider  domain  within  which  a  narrower  choice  will  later  be  made. 

These  considerations,  reenforced  by  others,  imply,  in  the  judgment 
of  this  commission,  a  redivision  of  the  period  devoted  to  elementary 
and  secondary  education.  The  eight  years  heretofore  given  to  ele- 
mentary education  have  not,  as  a  rule,  been  effectively  utilized.  The 
last  two  of  these  years  in  particular  have  not  been  well  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  adolescent.  Many  pupils  lose  interest  and  either 
drop  out  of  school  altogether  or  form  habits  of  dawdling,  to  the 
serious  injury  of  subsequent  work.  We  believe  that  much  of  the  diffi- 
culty will  be  removed  by  a  new  type  of  secondary  education  begin- 
ning at  about  12  or  13.  Furthermore,  the  period  of  four  years  now 
allotted  to  the  high  school  is  too  short  a  time  in  which  to  accom- 
plish the  work  above  outlined. 

Wc,  therefore,  recormiiend  a  reorganization  of  the  school  system 
wherely  the  first  six  years  shall  oe  devoted  to  elementary  education  ( 
designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  impils  of  approximately  6  to  12  years 
of  age;  and  the  second  six  years  to  secondary  education  designed  to  '' 
meet  the  needs  of  pupils  of  approximately  12  to  18  years  of  age. 

XL  DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  INTO  JUNIOR  AND 
SENIOR  PERIODS. 

The  six  years  to  be  devoted  to  secondary  education  may  well  bo 
divided  into  two  periods  which  may  be  designated  as  the  junior  and 
senior  periods.  In  the  junior  period  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon 
the  attempt  to  help  the  pupil  to  explore  his  own  aptitudes  and  to  , 
make  at  least  provisional  choice  of  the  kinds  of  work  to  which  he  will  , 
devote  himself.  In  the  senior  period  emphasis  should  be  given  to 
training  in  the  fields  thus  chosen.  This  distinction  lies  at  the  basis 
of  the  organization  of  junior  and  senior  high  schools. 

1  The  term  "  curriculum  "  is  used  by  this  commission  to  designate  a  systematic  arranjie- 
jient  of  subjects,  and  courses  in  those  subjects,  botla  required  and  eleciivo,  extending 
through  two  or  more  years  and  designed  Tor  a  group  of  pupils  whose  common  aims  and 
probable  careers  may  properly  differentiate  a  considerable  part  of  their  work  from  that  of 
other  groups  in  the  school. 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES  OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION.  19 

In  the  jiiiiior  high  scliool  there  should  be  the  oi'iidual  introduction 
of  departmental  in.^tiiiction,  some  choice  of  subjects  under  guidance, 
promotion  by  subjects,  prevocational  courses,  and  a  social  or^c^aiTTz'a- 
tion  that  cjills  forth  initiative  and  develops  the  sense  of  persoiial  re- 
sponsibility for  the  Av  el  fare  of  the  group. 

In  the  senior  high  school  a  definite  curriculum  organization  slnndd 
be  provided  by  means  of  which  each  pupil  may  take  work  system- 
atically planned  with  reference  to  liis  needs  as  an  individual  and  as 
a  member  of  society.  The  senior  high  school  should  be  characterized 
by  a^rapiclly  developing  social  consciousness  and  by  an  aptitude  of 
self-reliance  based  upon  clearl}''  perceived  objectives. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  junior  and  senior  periods  should 
each  be  three  years  in  length  so  as  to  realize  their  distinctive  pur- 
poses. In  sparsely  settled  communities  where  a  senior  high  school 
can  not  be  maintained  effectivel}',  the  junior  high  school  may  well 
be  four  years  in  length,  so  that  the  pupils  may  attend  school  nearer 
to  their  homes  for  one  more  year. 

The  commission  is  not  unmindful  of  the  desirability,  when  funds 
permit,  of  extending  secondary  education  under  local  auspices  so  as 
to  include  the  first  two  years  of  work  usually  offered  in  colleges,  and 
constituting  what  is  known  as  the  "  junior  college,"  but  it  has  seemed 
unwise  for  the  commission  to  attempt  to  outline  the  work  of  this 
new  unit. 

XII.  ARTICULATION   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION   WVVB.   ELE- 
MENTARY EDUCATION. 

Admission  to  higli  school  is  now,  as  a  rule,  based  upun  the  com- 
pletion of  a  prescribed  amount  of  jicademic  work.  As  a  tesult  many 
over-age  pupils  either  leave  school  altogether  or  are  retained  in  the 
elementary  school  when  they  are  no  longer  deriving  jjiuch  benefit 
from  its  instruction.  Should  a  similar  conception  of  the  articulation 
of  the  two  schools  continue  after  the  elementary-  program  has  been 
shortened  to  six  years,  similar  bad  results  will  persist.  Ex^^erience 
in  certain  school  systems,  hovvever,  shows  that  the  secondai'y  school 
can  provide  special  instruction  for  over-age  pupils  more  successfully 
than  the  elementary  school  can.  Vonsequcntli/  we  recommend  that, 
secondary  schools  adrait^  and  frovlde  suitahle  instruction  for,  all  pu- 
pils ivho  are  in  any  respect  so  mature  that  they  would  derive  more 
hene-jit  from  the  secondary  school  than  from  the  elementary  school. 

XIII.  ARTICULATION  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION   WITH   SECONDARY 

EDUCATION. 

In  view  of  the  important  role  of  secondary  education  in  achieving 
the  objectives  essential  in  American  life,  it  follows  that  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning  are  not  justified  in  maintaining  entrance  require- 


2G  CAnDINA;^  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

ments  and  examinations  of  a  character  that  handicap  the  secondary 
school  in  discharging  its  proper  functions  in  a  democracy. 

As  stated  in  Section  XII  of  this  report,  the  secondary  school 
should  admit  all  pupils  who  would  derive  greater  benefit  from  the 
secondary  than  from  the  elementary  school.  With  the  demand  of 
democratic  society  for  extended  liberal  and  vocational  education  for 
an  ever-increasing  number  of  persons,  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning,  taken  as  a  whole,  are  under  a  similar  obligation  with  refer- 
ence to  those  vsdiose  needs  are  no  longer  met  by  the  secondary  school 
and  are  disposed  to  continue  their  education.  The  conception  that 
higher  education  should  be  limited  to  the  few  is  destined  to  disap- 
pear in  the  interests  of  democracy. 

The  tradition  that  a  particular  type  of  education,  and  that  exclu- 
sively nonvocational  in  character,  is  the  only  acceptable  preparation 
for  advanced  education,  either  liberal  or  vocational,  must  therefore 
give  way  to  a  scientific  evaluation  of  all  types  of  secondary  edu- 
cation as  preparation  for  continued  study.  This  broader  concep- 
tion need  not  involve  any  curtailment  of  opportunities  for  those 
who  early  manifest  academic  interest  to  pursue  the  work  adapted 
to  their  needs.  It  does,  however,  mean  that  pupils  who,  during  the 
secondary  period,  devote  a  considerable  time  to  courses  having  voca- 
tional content  should  be  permitted  to  pursue  whatever  form  of  higher 
education,  either  liberal  or  vocational,  they  are  able  to  undertake 
with  profit  to  them.selves  and  to  society. 

XIV.  RECOGNITION  OF  THE  OBJECTIVES  IN  PLANNING  CURRICU- 

LUMS. 

ISTo  curriculum  in  the  secondary  school  can  be  regarded  as  satis- 
factory unless  it  gives  due  attention  to  each  of  the  objectives  of 
education  outlined  herein. 

Health,  as  an  objective,  makes  imperative  an  adequate  time  assign- 
ment for  physical '  training  and  requires  science  courses  properly 
focused' upon  personal  and  community  hygiene,  the  principles  of 
sanitation,  and  their  applications.  Command  of  fundamental  proc- 
esses necessitates  thorough  courses  in  the  English  language  as  a 
means  of  taking  in  and  giving  forth  ideas.  (Worthy  home-member- 
ship calls  for  the  redirection  of  much  of  the  mTfk  in  literature,  art, 
and  the  social  studies.  For  girls  it  necessitates  adequate  courses  in 
household  arts.  '  Citizenship  demands  that  the  social  studies  be  given 
a  prominent  place.  Vocation  as  an  objective  requires  that  many 
pupils  devote  much  of  their  time  to  specific  preparation  for  a  definite 
trade  or  occupation,  and  that  some  pursue  studies  that  serve  as  a 
basis  for  advanced  work  in  higher  institutions.  The  worthy  use  of 
leisure  calls  for  courses  in  literature,  art,  music,  and  science  so  taught 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES  OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION.  21 

as  to  develop  appreciation.     It  necessitates  also  a  margin  of  free 
electives  to  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  personal  avocational  interests. 

Due  recognition  of  these  objectives  will  provide  the  elements  of 
distribution  and  concentration  which  are  recognized  as  essential  for 
a  well-balanced  and  effective  education. 

XV.  THE  SPECIALIZING  AND  UNIFYING  FUNCTIONS   OF   SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION. 

1.  Their  significance. — ^The  ideal  of  a  democracy,  as  set  forth  in 
Section  II  of  this  report,  involves,  on  the  one  hand,  specialization 
whereby  individuals  and  groups  of  individuals  may  become  effective 
in  the  various  vocations  and  other  fields  of  human  endeavor,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  unification  whereby  the  members  of  that  democ- 
racy may  obtain  those  common  ideas,  common  ideals,  and  common 
modes  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action  that  make  for  cooperation, 
social  cohesion,  and  social  solidarity. 

Without  eiiective  specialization  on  the  part  of  groups  of  individ- 
uals there  can  be  no  progress.  Without  unification  in  a  democracy 
there  can  be  no  worthy  community  life  and  no  concerted  action  for 
necessary  social  ends.  Increasing  specialization  emphasizes  the  need 
for  unification,  without  which  a  democracy  is  a  prey  to  enemies  at 
home  and  abroad. 

2.  The  specializing  function. — Secondary  education  in  the  past  has 
met  the  needs  of  only  a  few  groups.  The  growing  recognition  that 
progress  in  our  i^nerican  democracy  depends  in  no  small  measure 
npon  adequate  provision  for  specialization  in  many  fields  is  the  chief 
cause  leading  to  the  present  reorganization  of  secondary  education. 
Only  through  attention  to  the  needs  of  various  groups  of  individuals 
as  shown  by  aptitudes,  abilities,  and  aspirations  can  the  secondary 
school  secure  from  each  pupil  his  best  efforts.  The  school  must  capi- 
talize the  dominant  interest  that  each  boy  and  girl  has  at  the  time 
and  direct  that  interest  as  wisely  as  possi]:>le.  This  is  the  surest 
method  by  which  hard  and  effective  work  may  be  obtained  from  each 

jpupil. 

/     Specialization    demands   the    following   provisions   in   secondary 
f  education : 

I       (a)  A  loide  range  of  suhjects. — In  order  to  test  and  develop  tlie 
/  many  important  capacities  and  interests  found  in  pupils  of  secondary- 
school  age,  the  school  should  provide  as  wide  a  range  of  subjects  as 
it  can  offer  effectively. 

{h)  Exploration  and  guidance. — Especiall}''   in  the  junior   high 

school  the  pupil  should  have  a  variety  of  experience  and  contacts 

*  in  order  that  he  may  explore  his  own  capacities  and   aptitudes. 

Through  a  system  of  educational  supervision  or  guidance  he  should 


22  CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

be  helped  to  determine  his  education  and  his  vocation.     These  de- 
cisions should  not  be  imposed  upon  him  hj  others. 

(c)  Adaptation  of  content  and  methods. — The  content  and  teach- 
ing methods  of  every  study  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacities,  in- 
terests, and  needs  of  the  pupils  concerned.  In  certain  studies  these 
factors  ma}^  differ  widely  for  various  groups  of  pupils,  e.  g.,  chemis- 
try should  emphasize  different  phases  in  agricultural,  commercial, 
industrial,  and  household-arts  curriculums. 

(d)  Flexibility  of  organization  ecM,  administration. — Flexibility 
ehould  be  secured  by  "  election  "  of  studies  or  curriculum,  promotion 
by  subjects  from  the  beginning  of  the  junior  high  school,  possible 
transfer  from  curriculum  to  curriculum,  provision  for  maximum  and 
minimum  assignments  for  pupils  of  greater  and  less  ability,  and, 
under  certain  conditions,  for  the  rapid  or  slow  progress  of  such 
pupils. 

{e)  Differentiated  citri-iculums. — The  work  of  the  senior  high  school 
should  be  organized  into  diff'erentiated  curriculums.  The  range  of 
such  curriculums  should  be  as  v/ide  as  the  school  can  offer  effect- 
ively. The  basis  of  differentiation  should  be,  in  the  broad  sense  of 
the  term,  vocational,  thus  justif3dng  the  names  commonly  given, 
such  as  agricultural,  business,  clerical,  industrial,  fine-arts,  and 
household-arts  curriculums.  Provision  should  be  made  also  for  those 
having  distinctively  academic  interests  and  needs.  The  conclusion 
that  the  w^ork  of  the  senior  high  school  should  be  organized  on  the 
basis  of  curriculums  does  not  imply  that  every  stud}?-  should  be  differ- 
ent in  the  various  curriculums.  Nor  does  it  imply  that  ever}'-  study 
should  be  determined  by  the  dominant  element  of  that  curriculum. 
Indeed  any  such  practice  woukl  ignore  other  objectives  of  education 
just  as  important  as  that  of  vocational  eiffciency. 

3.  The  unify ing  function. — In  some  countries  a  common  heredity, 
a  strongly  centralized  government,  and  an  established  religion  con- 
tribute to  social  solidarity.  In  America,  racial  stocks  are  widely  di- 
versified, various  forms  of  social  heredity  come  into  conflict,  diff'erincr 
religious  beliefs  do  not  ahvays  make  for  unification,  and  the  members 
of  dift'erent  vocations  often  fail  to  recognize  the  interests  that  they 
have  in  common  with  othci'S.  The  school  is  the  one  agency  that 
may  be  controlled  definitely  and  consciously  by  our  democracy  for  the 
purpose  of  unifying  its  people.  In  this  process  the  secondary  school 
must  play  an  important  part  because  the  elementar}^  school  with  its 
immature  pupils  can  not  alone  develop  the  common  knowledge,  com- 
mon ideals,  and  common  interests  essential  to  American  democracy. 
Furthermore,  children  of  immigrant  parents  attend  the  secondary 
school  in  large  and  increasing  numbers;  secondary  education  comes 
at  a  stage  in  the  development  of  boys  and  girls  when  social  interests 


CxVEDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  23 

develop  rapidly;   and  from  the  secondary  school  the   majority  of 
pupils  pass  directly  into  participation  in  the  activities  of  our  society. 
The  unifying  function  calls  for  the  folhjwing  provisions  in  second- 
ary education: 

(a)  Studies  of  direct  value  for  this  purpose,  especially  the  s(;cial 
studies  and  the  mother  tongue,  with  its  literal  are. 

(b)  The  social  mingling  of  pupils  through  the  organization  and 
administration  of  the  school. 

(c)  The  participation  of  pupils  in  common  activities  in  Avhich 
they  should  have  a  large  measure  of  responsibility,  such  as  athletic 
games,  social  activities,  and  the  government  of  the  school. 

4.  SpeciaUsation  and  unification  as  supplementary  functions. — 
With  increasing  specialization  in  any  society  comes  a  corresponding 
necessity  for  increased  attention  to  unification.  So  in  the  secondary 
school,  increased  attention  to  specialization  calls  for.more  purpose- 
ful plans  for  uniiication.  When  there  was  but  little  dift'erentiation 
in  the  work  within  the  secondary  school,  and  the  pupils  in  attendance 
were  less  diversified  as  to  their  heredity  and  interests,  social  unifica- 
tion in  the  full  sense  of  the  term  could  not  take  place. 

The  supplementary  character  of  these  fun.ctions  has  direct  bearing- 
upon  the  subjects  to  be  taken  by  secondary-school  pupils.     To  this 
end  the  secondary  school  should  provide  the  following  groups  of 
studies : 

{a)  Constants^  to  be  taken  by  all  or  nearly  all  pupils.  These 
should  be  determined  mainly  b}'  the  objectives  of  health,  coniiUand  of 
fundamental  proSsses,  worthy  home-meSbership,  citiz;6s^;hip,  and 
ethical  cl^racter.        c^.  ■  ^     ', 

(Z>)  'Viirriculum'^varia'bles,  peculiar  to  a  curriculum  or  to  a  group 
of  related  curriculums.  These  should  be  determined  for  the  most 
part  by  voca^nal  needs,  including,  as  thejL  frequently  do,  prepara- 
tion for  advanced  study  in  special  fields.  *^>  ;;r.<  ■: 

{c)  Free  electices,  to  be  taken  by  pupils  In  accordance  with  in- 
dividual aptitudes  or  special  interests,  generally  of  a  nonvocational 
nature.  These  are  significant,  especiailj'  in  preparation  for  the 
worthy  use  of  leisure. 

The  constants  should  contribute  definitely  to  unification,  the  cur- 
riculum variables  to  specialization,  and  the  free  electives  to  either  or 
both  of  these  functions. 

In  the  seventh  year,  that  is  the  first  year  of  the  junior  high  school, 
the  pupil  should  not  be  rex^uired  to  choose  at  the  outset  the  field  to 
which  he  will  devote  himself.  For  those  who  do  not  at  this  time 
have  a  definite  purpose,  opportunity  should  be  given  to  gain  some 
experience  with  several  significant  types  of  work,  such  as  some  form 
of  industrial  arts,  gardening  or  othei-  agricultural  activity,  type- 
Avriting  or  problems  drawn  from  business,  household  arts  for  girls, 
and  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  pupils  some  work  in  a  foreign  language. 


24  CAEDINAL   PEINCIPLES   OF   SECOXDAEY   EDUCATION. 

It  may  be  found  feasible  to  organize  several  such  subjects  or  projects 
into  short  units  and  to  arrange  the  schedule  so  that  ever}^  pupil  may 
take  several  of  them.  The  Avork  thus  offered  may  and  should  be  of 
real  educational  value,  in  addition  to  its  exploratory-  value. 

In  the  two  following  years  of  the  junior  high  school,  some  pupils 
should  continue  this  trying-out  process,  while  others  may  well  devote 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  their  time  to  curriculum  variables.  Pupils 
"who  will  probably  enter  industry  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  grade  may 
well  give  as  much  as  tvvo-thirds  of  their  time  to  vocational  prepara- 
tion, but  they  must  not  be  permitted  to  neglect  preparation  for  citi- 
zenship and  the  worthy  use  of  leisure. 

In  the  senior  high  school  the  relative  proportion  of  these  three 
groups  of  subjects  will  vary  with  the  curriculum.  Pupils  who  are 
to  enter  a  gainful  occupation  before  the  completion  of  the  senior  high 
school  may  well  devote  a  large  proportion  of  their  time  to  the  cur- 
riculum variables,  especially  during  their  last  year  in  school. 

In  brief,  the  greater  the  time  allowed  for  curriculum  variables,  the 
more  purposeful  should  be  the  time  devoted  to  the  constants  in  order 
that  the  school  may  be  effective  as  an  agency  of  unification.  Above 
all,  the  gi^eater  the  differentiation  in  studies,  the  'more  important  be- 
comes the  social  mingling  of  pupils  pursuing  different  cjirriculums. 

The  supplementary  character  of  the  specializing  and  unifying 
functions  has  a  direct  bearing  also  upon  the  type  of  high  school  best 
suited  to  the  needs  of  democratic  societj^,  as  discussed  in  the  next  sec- 
tion. 

,    XVI.  THE  COMPREHENSIVE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AS  THE  STANDARD 
>  SECONDARY  SCHOOL. 

The  comprehensive  (sometimes  called  composite,  or  cosmopolitan) 
high  school,  embracing  all  curriculums  in  one  unified  organization, 
should  remain  the  standard  type  of  secondary  school  in  the  United 
States. 

Junior  high  schools  must  be  of  the  comprehensive  type,  whatever 
policy  be  adopted  for  the  senior  high  schools,  since  one  of  the  pri- 
mary purposes  of  the  junior  high  school  is  to  assist  the  pupil  through 
a  wide  variety  of  contacts  and  experiences  to  obtain  a  basis  for  in- 
telligent choice  of  his  educational  and  vocational  career.  In  the 
judgment  of  the  commission  senior  high  schools  and  four-year  high 
schools  of  the  older  organizations  should,  as  a  rule,  be  of  the  compre- 
hensive type  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  For  effectiveness  of  vocational  education. — ^^Vhien  effectively  or- 
ganized and  administered  (see  pp.  27  to  29)  the  comprehensive 
high  school  can  make  differentiated  education  of  greater  value  to, 
the  individual  and  to  society,  for  such  value  depends  largely  upo^f 
the  extent  to  which  the  individual  pursues  the  curriculum  best  suited 


CARDINAL  PPJXCIPLES   OF   5EC0XDARY  EDUCATION.  25 

to  his  needs.  This  factor  is  of  prime  importance,  althouo  a  fre- 
quently ignored  in  discussions  regarding  the  effectiveness  of  voca- 
tional and  other  types  of  differentiated  education. 

In  a  s\'stem  of  special-type  schools  many  in^uei.vcs  interfere  with 
ti\Q  wise  choice  of  curriculum.  Thus  mac^  pupils  choose  the  high 
school  nearest  to  their  homes,  or  the  schc«ol  to  which  their  friends 
have  gone  or  are  going,  or  the  school  that  provides  the  most  attractive 
social  life  or  has  the  best  athletic  teams.  Still  others  are  unwisely 
influenced  by  the  notions  of  neighbors  and  friends  of  the  family. 
After  entering  a  special-type  school,  many  pupils  drop  out  because 
the  work  is  not  adapted  to  their  needs,  while  comparatively  few 
transfer  to  another  school. 

In  a  comprehensive  school  the  influences  interferiag  with  a  wise 
choice  of  curriculum  may  be  reduced  to  a  mlRimum.  When  an  un- 
wise choice  has  been  made  the  pupil  may  be  greatly  aided  in  discover- 
ing a  curriculum  better  adapted  to  his  needs  because  he  can  see  other 
work  in  the  school,  talk  with  school  companions,  and  confer  with 
teachers  who  are  able  to  give  him  expert  advice  regarding  such  cur- 
riculums.  When  such  a  pupil  has  found  a  curriculum  better  adapted 
to  Ills  needs,  he  can  be  transferred  to  it  without  severance  of  school 
relationships  and.  what  seems  to  him.  the  sacrifice  of  school  loyalty. 

Moreover,  pupils  in  comprehensive  schools  have  contacts  valuable 
to  them  vocationally,  since  people  in  every  vocation  must  be  able  to 
deal  intelligently  with  those  in  other  vocations,  and  employers  and 
employees  must  be  able  to  imderstand  one  another  and  recognize 
common  interests.  Similarly,  teachers  in  comprehensive  schools  have 
a  better  opportunity  to  observe  other  curriculmns  and  are  thereby 
better  able  to  advise  pupils  intelligently. 

Summarizing  under  this  head,  the  well-organized  comprehensive 
school  can  make  differentiated  education  of  greater  value  than  can 
the  special-type  school,  because  it  aids  in  a  wise  choice  of  curriculum, 
assists  in  readjustments  when  such  are  desirable,  and  provides  for 
wider  contacts  e^ential  to  true  success  in  every  vocation. 

2.  For  u?iificati07i.—rVrhQJi  administered  by  a  principal  wlio  him- 
self recognizes  tlie  social  value  of  all  types  of  secondary  education 
and  inspires  a  broad  spirit  of  democracy  among  teachers  and  pupils, 
the  comprehensive  high  school  is  a  better  instrimient  for  unitication. 
Through  friendships  formed  with  pupils  pursuing  ether  curriculums 
iid  having  vocational  and  educational  goals  widely  different  from 
their  own,  the  pupils  realize  that  the  interests  which  they  hold  in 
common  with  others  are,  after  all,  far  more  important  than  the 
*7ifferciices  that  would  tend  to  make  them  antagonistic  to  othei*s. 
Ihrough  school  assemblies  and  organizations  they  acquire  common 
ideas.  Through  group  activities  they  secure  training  in  cooperation 
Through  loyalty  to  a  school  T^hich  includes  many  groups  they  ap§ 


26  CAEDilVAl.   PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

prepared  for  loyalty  to  State  and  Nation.  In  short,  the  compre- 
hensive school  is  the  prototype  of  a  democracy  in  which  various 
groii]:>s  iiRist  have  a  degree  of  self-consciousness  as  groups  and  yet 
be  federated  into  a  larger  whole  through  the  recognition  of  common 
interests  and  ideals.  Life  in  such  a  school  is  a  natural  and  valuable 
preparation  for  life  in  a  democracy. 

?>.  For  ol)iQr Lives  other  than  vgcatio^^^ — A  comprehensive  liigh 
school  can  provide  much  more  effectively  for  health  education,  educa- 
tion for  the  worthy  use  of  leisure,  and  home-making  education  than 
n  number  of  smaller  special-type  schools  can. 

The  most  effective  health  education  requires  adequate  equipment 
and  instructors  competent  to  diagnose  health  needs  and  direct  health 
activities.  Expenses  and  difficulties  of  duplication  of  such  facilities 
in  every  smaller  special-type  school  are  almost  prohibitive.  Prepara- 
tion for  the  worthy  use  of  leisure  is  best  achieved  when  there  is  a 
wide  variety  of  activities  from  which  pupils  may  select,  such  as 
arts  and  crafts  clubs,  literary  and  debating  societies,  and  "musical 
organizations.  All  of  these  require  for  their  success  enthusiastic 
leadership  such  as  can  best  be  secured  from  a  large  faculty.  Girls 
in  all  curriculums  should  have  the  advantages  of  work  in  household 
arts  under  efficient  directors  and  with  adequate  equipment.  Such 
conditions  are  most  readily  provided  in  the  comprehensive  school 
where  there  is  a  strong  department  of  household  arts. 

With  the  establishment  of  a  special-type  high  school  it  frequently 
happens  that  various  important  phases  of  education  are  neglected 
or  minimized  in  the  other  schools  of  that  system. 

4.  For  accessibility. — In  cities  large  enough  to  require  more  than 
one  high  school  it  is  desirable  to  have  each  school  so  located  as  to 
serve  a  particular  section  of  the  city,  thereby  reducing  the  expense 
and  loss  of  tim.e  involved  in  travel  on  the  part  of  pupils.  The 
proximity  of  the  school  to  the  homes  results  also  in  greater  interest 
hi  education  on  the  part  of  pupils  and  parents,  and  consequently 
increases  the  drawing  and  holding  power  of  the  school. 

5.  Adaptation  to  local  needs. — In  recommending  the  comprehensive 
high  school  as  the  standard  secondary  school  the  commission  recog- 
nizes that  in  large  cities  Avhere  tAvo  or  more  high  schools  are  needed 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  provide  every  curriculum  in  each  high 
school,  such  a  practice  being  precluded  by  the  fact  that  certain 
curriculums  would  thereby  enroll  in  the  several  schools  too  few 
pupils  to  permit  economical  organization  and  administration.  In 
such  cases  a  few  curriculums  may  well  appear  in  selected  comprehen- 
sive schools  or  even  in  a  single  school  onty,  while  other  curriculums 
appear  in  every  school. 

The  commission  also  recognizes  the  impracticability  of  offering 
uvery  curriculum  in  every  small  rural  high  school.    In  such  cases  it 


CARDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATIOK.  27 

is  dosinible  that  a  curriculum  for  which  the  number  of  pupils  does 
not  warrant  such  duplication  should  be  oiToi'ed  in  selected  schools, 
and  that  pupils  needing  that  curricuhim  should  go  to  those  schools. 
This  plan  is  substantitilly  the  same  as  that  recom.mended   for  the- 
large  city. 

(■).  Effective  organip:ation  of  curr/.culnins  in  ccmprehensive  high 
schools. — Finally,  the  connnission  recognizes  that  in  the  past  rela- 
tively ineffective  instruction  has  been  alTorded  in  some  comprehen- 
sive schools.  This  has  been  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  every- 
where vocational  education  has  been  passing  and  is  still  passing 
througli  a  period  of  experimentation.  The  commission  believes, 
however,  that  the  most  serious  defect  in  vocational  education  in  the 
comprehensive  high  school  has  been  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  organiza- 
tion and  administration.  Effective  vocational  educati(m  can  not  be 
secured  when  administered  like  so  many  accidental  groupings  of  sub- 
jects. To  rem.edy  this  situation  tlie  commission  recommends  that 
each  curriculum,  or  group  of  closely  related  curriculums,  in  the 
large  comprehensive  liigh  school  be  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
a  director  v\hose  task  it  shall  be  to  organize  that  curriculum  and 
maintain  its  efficiency.  The  curriculum  directors  must  work  under 
the  general  direction  of  the  principal,  who  must  be  the  coordinator  of 
all  the  activities  of  the  school.  Especially  is  it  necessary  that  each 
director  shall  be  selected  with  the  same  care  that  would  be  exer- 
cised in  choosing  the  principal  of  a  special-type  school  enrolling  as 
n:!any  pupils  as  are  enrolled  in  the  curriculum  'or  curriculums  under 
his  direction.  In  medium-sized  high  schools  unable  to  employ 
directors  for  the  various  curriculums,  the  teachers  should  be  or- 
ganized into  committees  to  consider  the  problems  of  the  various 
curriculums,  all  working  under  the  direction  of  the  principal. 

Unless  the  various  curriculums  are  effectively  organized  and  ad- 
ministered, and  unless  the  democratic  spirit  pervades  the  school,  the 
comprehensive  high  school  is  in  danger  of  failure;  with  tliese  factors 
present,  it  has  every  promise  of  succes.^;;. 

XVIL    RECOGNITION    OF    THE    OBJECTIVES    IN    ORGANIZING    THE 

SCHOOL. 

Tlie  objectives  must  determine  the  organization,  or  else  the  or- 
ganization will  determine  the  objectives.  If  the  only  basis  upon 
which  a  high  school  is  organized  is  that  of  the  subjects  of  study, 
each  department  being  devoted  to  some  particular*  subject,  there 
will  result  an  over-vahintion  of  the  importance  of  subjects  as  ^ich, 
and  the  tendency  will  be  for  each  teacher  to  regard  hisi  function  as 
merely  that  of  leading  the  pupils  to  master  a  particular  subject, 
rather  than  that  of  using  the  subjects  of  study  and  the  activities  of 
the  school  as  micans  for  achieving  the  objectives  of  education.     The 


28  CARDINAL  PEIXCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

departmental  organization  is  desirable  but  needs  to  be  supplemented. 
'  The  two  following  methods  are  suggested : 

(A)   The  PrincipaVs  Council. 

The  principal  may  select  from  his  teachers  a  council,  each  member 
of  which  shall  be  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  studying  the 
activities  of  the  school  with  reference  to  a  specific  objective.  Plans 
for  realizing  these  objectives  should  be  discussed  by  the  principal 
and  the  council.  Without  impairing  in  any  way  the  ultimate  re- 
sponsibility of  the  principal,  it  will,  as  a  rule,  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  school  if  the  principal  encourages  initiative  on  the  part  of 
these  council  members  and  delegates  to  them  sucli  responsibilities  as 
he  finds  they  can  discharge.  The  members  of  such  a  council  and 
their  duties  are  suggested  as.  follows : 

Health  director. — This  council  member  should  seek  to  ascertain 
whether  the  health  needs  of  the  pupils  are  adequately  met.  For  this 
purpose  he  should  consider  the  ventilation  and  sanitation  of  the 
building,  the  provisions  for  lunch,  the  posture  of  pupils,  the  amount 
of  home  work  required,  the  provisions  for  physical  training,  and 
the  effects  of  athletics.  He  should  find  out  whether  the  pupils  are 
having  excessive  social  activities  outside  of  school,  and  devise  means 
for  gaining  the  cooperation  of  parents  in  the  proper  regulation  of 
w^ork  and  recreation.  He  may  well  see  whether  the  teaching  of 
biology  is  properly  focused  upon  hygiene  and  sanitation. 

Citizenship  director. — The  citizenship  director  should  determine 
whether  the  pupils  are  developing  initiative  and  the  sense  of  per- 
sonal responsibility.  He  should  foster  civic-mindedness  through  the 
school  paper,  debating  society,  and  general  school  exercises,  and  give 
suggestions  for  directing  the  thinking  of  the  pupils  to  significant 
problems  of  the  day. 

Curriculum  directors. — As  discussed  in  Section  XVI  of  this  re- 
port, for  each  important  group  of  vocations  for  wdiich  the  school 
oifers  a  curriculum,  or  group  of  curriculums,  there  should  be  a 
director  to  study  the  needs  of  these  vocations  and  find  out  the  respects 
in  which  the  graduates  are  succeeding  or  failing  in  meeting  legiti- 
mate vocational  demands.  With  the  knowledge  thus  gained  ho 
should  strive  to  improve  the  work  offered  b}^  the  school. 

One  of  these  curriculum  directors  should  have  charge  of  prepara- 
tion for  colleges  and  normal  schools.  He  should  obtain  the  records 
of  graduates  attending  those  schools  and  find  out  the  strong  and 
weak  points  in  their  preparation.  He  will  advise  with  pupils  in- 
tending to  enter  these  institutions  as  to  the  work  that  they  should 
take  in  the  high  school. 

Director  of  vocational  and  educational  guidance. — This  member  of 
the  council  should  collect  data  regarding  various  vocational  and  edu- 


CAKDINAL  PSINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUOATIOJBr,  29 

cational  opportunities  and  the  qualifications  needed.  If  the  school 
is  small,  he  may  help  individual  pupils  in  acquiring  an  intelligent 
attitude  toward  the  choice  of  a  vocation  or  of  a  higher  education; 
but  if  the  school  is  largo,  he  must  train  others  who  can  know  the 
pupils  more  intimately,  to  assist  in  this  service,  always  holding  him- 
self ready  to  give  advice. 

Director  of  2)re2)aratlon  for  leisure. — This  council  member  should, 
so  far  as  possible,  see  that  the  i^upils  are  developing  interests  that 
will  assist  them  in  later  life  to  use  their  leisure  wisely.  He  should 
consider  especially  the  musical  organizations,  the  school  library,  the 
art  clubs  and  classes,  and  the  various  ways  in  which  pupils  are 
si^ending  their  leisure. 

The  large  school  may  have  need  for  additional  directors  to  deal 
with  other  vital  phases  of  education. 
(B)  By  Committees. 

The  principal  may  appoint  committees  of  teachers  each  of  which 
would  be  charged  vvith  duties  simihir  to  those  described.  An  ad- 
vantage of  the  committee  plan  is  that  a  larger  number  of  teachers 
will  be  stimulated  to  acquire  a  broad  educational  point  of  view. 

Theoretically,  it  is  possible  for  the  principal  himself  to  supervise 
the  teaching  and  direct  all  the  activities  of  the  school.  Practically, 
hoAvever,  the  majority  of  administrators  tend  to  become  absorbed  in 
a  few  aspects  of  education.  In  fact,  intensive  creative  work  along 
any  one  line  on  the  part  of  the  principal  leads  naturally  to  at  least  a 
temporary  neglect  of  the  other  aspects  of  education.  Consequently, 
either  a  principal's  council  or  committees  of  teachers  seem  essential 
in  order  that  none  of  the  objectives  may  be  neglected. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  council  or  the  committees  should  in 
any  way  lessen  the  ultimate  responsibility  of  the  principal,  but  that 
by  this  means  the  cooperation  of  the  entire  teaching  body  may  be 
secured  and  all  the  objectives  held  in  view. 

XVIII.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  ESSENTIAL  FOR  ALL  YOUTH. 

To  the  extent  to  which  the  objectives  outlined  herein  are  adopted 
as  the  controlling  aims  of  education,  to  that  extent  wiJl  it  be  recog- 
nized that  an  extended  education  for  every  boy  and  girl  is  essential 
to  the  welfare,  and  even  to  the  existence,  of  democratic  society. 
The  significance  of  these  objectives  is  becoming  r<iore  and  more  ap- 
parcr/c  under  modern  conditions  in  our  democrac}^  These  conditions 
grow  cut  of  increased  knowledge  of  science  with  its  rapidly  extend- 
ing applications  to  all  the  affairs  of  life,  keener  competition  with 
its  attendant  dangers,  closer  contacts  of  peoples  of  varied  racial  and 
religious  types,  and  greater  assertivcness  of  all  men  and  women  in 
the  control  of  their  own  destinies.    These  and  many  other  tendencies 


30  CARDINAL  PEINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION^ 

increase  the  significance  of  health,  worthy  home-membership,  voca- 
tion, citizenship,  the  wortliy  use  of  leisure,  and  ethical  character. 

Each  of  these  objectives  requires  for  its  realization  not  only  the 
training  and  habit  formation  that  the  child  may  secure,  but  also  the 
intelligence  and  efficiency  that  can  not  be  developed  before  ado- 
lescence. In  fact,  their  realization  calls  for  the  full  period  allotted 
to  both  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools. 

Consequently^  this  commission  holds  that  education  should  he  so 
reorganized  that  every  norraal  hoy  and  girl  vnll  he  encouraged  to 
remain  in  school  to  the  age  of  18,  on  full  time  if  possible,  otherwise 
on  pa^t  time. 

XIX.  PART-TIME   SCHOOLING  AS  A  COMPULSORY  MINIMUM 
REQUIREMENT. 

As  stated  in  Section  I  of  this  report,  only  one  American  youth  in 
about  three  reaches  the  first  year  of  the  four-year  high  school,  and 
only  one  in  about  nine  remains  in  school  to  the  end  of  the  high- 
school  course.  This  condition  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  due  principally 
to  four  causes:  First,  the  limited  range  of  instruction  commonly 
offered  by  secondary  schools;  second,  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  ^ 
school  adequately  to  demonstrate  to  young  people  and  their  parents 
the  value  of  the  education  offered;  third,  the  lure  of  emplojanent, 
together  with  the  desire  for  increased  economic  independence  on  the  ) 
part  of  young  parsons ;  and  fourth,  economic  pressure  in  the  family, 
real  or  imagined. 

The  first  of  these  causes  is  rapidly  disappearing  through  the  intro- 
duction of  curricuiums  with  rich  vocational  content.  The  second 
may  be  removed  by  subordinating  deferred  values  and  reorganizing 
instruction  so  as  to  make  the  values  more  evident  to  the  learner,  as 
discussed  in  Sections  VIII  and  IX.  The  third  may  be  diminished 
in  its  effect  by  gi-eater  virility  in  school  work.  Economic  pressure 
will  continue  until  social  conditions  can  be  materially  improved. 

In  the  meantime,  a  sound  national  polic}^  dictates  the  urgent  need 
for  legislation  whereby  all  young  persons,  whether  employed  or  not, 
shall  be  required  to  attend  school  not  less  than  eight  hours  in  each 
week  that  schools  are  in  session  until  the}^  reach  the  age  of  18. 

Attendance  for  eight  hours  in  each  week  will  make  possible  im- 
portant progress  not  only  in  vocational  efliciency  but  also  in  the 
promotion  of  health,  preparation  for  worth}?-  home-membership, 
civic  intelligence  and  clliciency,  the  better  utilization  of  leisure,  and 
ethical  development.  All  these  objectives  are  evidently  as  impor- 
tant for  the  young  worker  as  for  those  who  remain  in  full-time  at- 
tendance at  school. 

The  value  of  part-tim.e  instruction,  if  properly  organized,  is  out  of 
%[{  proportion  to  the  time  involved,  because  it  can  utilize  as  a  basis 


CAEDINAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  3l 

the  new  experiences  of  the  yoinifr  worker  and  his  new  social  ancl' 
civic  contacts.  Moreover,  continued  attendance  at  school  will  afford 
an  intellectual  stimulus  too  often  lacking  to  these  yoiuiir  persons 
under  (he  modern  subdivision  of  labor. 

Consequently^  this  commission  recommends  the  enactment  of  legis- 
lation whereby  all  young  persons  up  to  the  age  of  18^  v)hether  em- 
ployed or  not,  shall  be  required  to  attend  the  secondary  school  not 
less  than  eight  hours  in  each' week  that  the  schools  are  in  session. 

In  some  States  it  may  be  held  to  be  impracticable  at  the  outset  to 
require  such  part-time  attendance  beyond  the  age  of  10  or  17,  but  the. 
commission  holds  that  the  imperative  needs  of  American  democracy 
can  not  be  met  until  the  period  is  extended  to  18. 

To  make  this  part-time  schooling  effective  it  will  be  necessary  to 
adapt  it  specifically  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  concerned.  More- 
over, teachers  must  be  trained  for  this  new  type  of  work.  Without 
such  provisions  there  is  great  clanger  of  failure  and  a  consequent  re- 
action against  this  most  valuable  extension  of  secondary  education. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  developing  a  sense  of  common  inter- 
ests and  social  solidarity  on  the  part  of  the  young  worker  and  those 
of  his  fellows  wdio  are  continuing  in  full-time  attendance  at  school, 
it  appears  to  this  commission  that  this  part-time  education, sliould  be 
conducted  in  the  comprehensive  secondary  scliocl  rather  than  in 
separate  continuation  schools,  as  is  the  custom  in  less  dem.ocratic 
societies.  By  this  plan  the  part-time  students  and  the  full-time 
students  may  share  in  the  use  of  the  assembly  hall,  gymnasium,  and 
other  equipment  provided  for  all.  This  plan  has  the  added  advan- 
tage that  the  enrollment  of  all  pupils  may  be  continuous  in  the  sec- 
ondary school,  thus  furthering  employment  supervision  on  the  one 
hand  and  making  easier  a  return  to  full-time  attendance  whenever 
the  lure  of  industry  or  the  improvement  of  economic  conditions  in 
the  family  makes  such  a  return  inviting  and  feasible. 

The  part-time  attendance  for  eight  hours  a  week  of  all  persons 
between  14  and  18  who  are  not  now  in  school  vrill  require  a  large 
increase  in  the  teaching  force  in  secondary  schools.  No  other  single 
piece  of  educational  legislation  could,  however,  do  more  to  raise 
the  level  of  intelligence  and  efficiency  and  to  insure  the  v\'elfare  of 
democracy. 

XX.  CONCLUSION. 

In  concluding  this  report  on  the  cardinal  principles  of  secondary 
education  the  commission  would  call  attention  to  its  IT  other  reports 
in  which  the  principles  herein  set  forth  are  applied  to  the  various 
aspects  of  secondary  education.  The  reports  now  available  are  listed 
on  the  last  page  of  this  bulletin,  and  other  are  nearly  read}^  for  pub- 
lication.   One  report  will  consider  in  detail  the  application  of  these 


32  CARDINAL  PEINCIPLES   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION. 

principles  to  the  organization  and  administration  of  secondary 
schools.  Thirteen  reports  deal  with  the  aims,  methods,  and  content 
of  the  various  subjects  of  study  and  curriculums  in  the  light  of  these 
principles.  Three  others  discuss  vocational  guidance,  physical  edu- 
cation, and  the  moral  values  that  should  be  derived  from  secondary- 
school  organization  and  instruction. 

It  is  becoming  increasingly  apparent  that  the  problems  of  sec- 
ondary education  merit  much  more  serious  attention  than  tliey  have 
received  heretofore.  The  study  of  the  best  methods  for  adapting  sec- 
ondary education  to  the  needs  of  modern  democratic  life  is  but  begun. 
The  physical,  intellectual,  emotional,  and  ethical  characteristics  of 
young  people  are  still  but  vaguely  comprehended.  Such  Imowledge  of 
social  needs  and  educational  theory  and  practice  as  is  already  avail- 
able has  been  seriously  studied  by  comparatively  few  administrators 
and  teachers.  Progress  w^ill  depend  very  largely  upon  adequate  pro- 
fessional training  of  teachers  both  before  and  after  entering  upon 
service.  Plans  must  be  adopted  for  pooling  the  results  of  successful 
experimentation  on  the  part  of  individual  teachers.  To  make  the 
reorganization  effective,  competent  supervision  and  constructive  lead- 
ership must  be  provided  in  the  various  fields  of  secondary  education. 

It  is  the  firm  belief  of  this  commission  that  secondary  education 
in  the  United  States  must  aim  at  nothing  less  than  complete  and 
worthy  living  for  all  youth,  and  that  therefore  the  objectives  de- 
scribed herein  must  find  place  in  the  education  of  every  boy  and 
girl. 

Finally,  in  the  process  of  translating  into  daily  practice  the  cardi- 
nal principles  herein  set  forth,  the  secondary  school  teachers  of  the 
United  States  must  themselves  strive  to  explore  the  inner  meaning 
of  the  great  democratic  movement  now  struggling  for  supremacy. 
The  doctrine  that  each  individual  has  a  right  to  the  opportunity  to 
develop  the  best  that  is  in  him  is  reinforced  by  the  belief  in  the  po- 
tential, and  perchance  unique,  worth  of  the  individual.  The  task  of 
education,  as  of  life,  is  therefore  to  call  forth  that  potential  worth. 

"While  seeking  to  evoke  the  distinctive  excellencies  of  individuals 
and  groups  of  individuals,  the  secondary  school  must  be  equally 
zealous  to  develop  those  common  ideas,  common  ideals,  and  common  ^ 
modes  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action,  whereby  America,  through  a  - 
rich,  unified,  common  life,  may  render  her  truest  service  to  a  world 
seeking  for  democracy  among  men  and  nations. 

o 


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